The SportsLine Projection Model simulates every FBS college football game 10,000 times. Over the past six-plus years, the proprietary computer model has generated a stunning profit of almost $2,500 for $100 players on its top-rated college football picks against the spread. Anyone who has followed it has seen huge returns.
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Peach Model Sets
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SportsLine's model is leaning Under on the point total, projecting the teams to combine for 62 points. It also says one side of the spread has all the value. You can see the model's Georgia vs. Ohio State Peach Bowl pick only at SportsLine.
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L-PEACH is a computer-based model that simulates the growth of peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] trees. The model integrates important concepts related to carbon assimilation, distribution, and use in peach trees. It also includes modeling of the responses to horticultural practices such as tree pruning and fruit thinning. While running L-PEACH, three-dimensional (3D) depictions of simulated growing trees can be displayed on the computer screen and the user can easily interact with the model. Quantitative data generated during a simulation can be saved to a file or printed for visualization and analysis. L-PEACH is a powerful tool for understanding how peach trees function in the field environment, and it can be used as an innovative method for dissemination of knowledge related with carbohydrate assimilation and partitioning. In this study, we describe the version of L-PEACH that runs on a daily time-step (L-PEACH-d) and how users can run the model and interact with it. To demonstrate how L-PEACH-d works, different pruning and fruit thinning strategies were analyzed. Regarding pruning, model outputs showed 3D depictions of unpruned trees and pruned trees trained to a perpendicular V system. For the fruit thinning studies, we simulated different intensities and dates of fruit thinning in mature peach trees. Total simulated yield increased with crop load but the opposite was observed for average fruit weight. An optimal balance between simulated total yield and average fruit weight was obtained by leaving 150 fruit per tree. Simulating different dates of fruit thinning indicated that fruit weight at harvest was higher on earlier compared with later-thinned trees. The model indicates that fruit thinning should be therefore carried out early in the season to maximize fruit size. The simulation results demonstrate that L-PEACH-d can be used as an educational tool and facilitate the adoption of suitable cultural practices for efficient production.
In peach trees, as in other plants, the energy used to create carbohydrates that support growth and development comes from solar radiation through the process of photosynthesis. Peach tree productivity is therefore dependent on the tree's photosynthetic efficiency and effectiveness in distributing and using carbohydrates. A basic knowledge of carbon assimilation and partitioning concepts at the whole-tree level can aid in understanding how peach trees grow and facilitate the adoption of suitable cultural practices for efficient production.
Early reports described how L-PEACH was designed (Allen et al., 2005). Further research explained how quantitative data generated during a simulation can be transferred in the form of text files to perform data analysis and display results in the form of plots (Allen et al., 2007). A later version included more explicit details for simulating shoot growth and resulted in more realistic simulations of tree architecture (Lopez et al., 2008a). Quantitative validation of the model at the whole plant and individual organ levels indicated that the model results were in general agreement with observations of real peach trees growing under optimal field conditions (Lopez et al., 2008a). Moreover, important concepts related with commercial practices, such as fruit thinning (Lopez et al., 2008b) and pruning (Smith et al., 2008; T.M. DeJong, C. Negron, R. Favreau, E. Costes, Y. Guedon, and G. Lopez, unpublished), were included in this version of the model. Continued development of the L-PEACH model is ongoing. While the model being discussed in this article (L-PEACH-d) runs on a daily time-step, a newer version (L-PEACH-h) that incorporates water as well as carbon transport and runs on an hourly time-step is currently under development. However, the hourly model runs much slower than the daily model because of a higher number of calculations. L-PEACH-h will likely not be as useful for performing simulations of the effects of horticultural practices such as pruning and fruit thinning on tree growth and yield. Thus, with the confidence of having developed a useful tool for learning how peach trees grow in response to horticultural practices, the next step is to disseminate the L-PEACH-d model for its use in different communities (scientific inquiry, grower demonstration, and classroom instruction). This requires the basics of how to install, run, and interact with the model. The goal of this study is to provide information that can increase the accessibility of L-PEACH-d to a broader audience and facilitate the implementation of the model as an innovative teaching method or horticultural management decision tool. Followed by a brief description of the model, this article includes details about software requirements and installation, how to perform simulations, and how users can interact with the model. Selected simulations are presented to demonstrate some applications of the model.
A conceptual schema of the L-PEACH-d model is presented in Fig. 2. Environmental factors are used as inputs to the model. These include daily solar radiation and daily maximum and minimum temperatures. In California, these data can easily be obtained from California Irrigation Management Information System weather stations. Some user-defined parameters are also required to start a simulation. These provide flexibility in running simulations for different cultivars and conditions. Details of these parameters are provided in Lopez et al., (2008a), and how users can introduce these parameters is explained later.
Conceptual framework of the L-PEACH-d model. Actual environmental data files are used as inputs. The model contains four major components, which involve sub-models for simulating dry matter partitioning and growth responses to environmental and management inputs, and outputs can be evaluated as three-dimensional simulated trees and numerically.
1) Organ functionality sub-models. In this component, the functionality of each organ type was programmed using rules based in previous research (Grossman and DeJong, 1994). These include concepts of growth, maintenance respiration, and carbohydrate storage and remobilization. Leaves are programmed to perform net photosynthesis and assimilate carbohydrates within the tree after computing light interception for each leaf as described in Lopez et al. (2008a). One important characteristic of L-PEACH-d is that all the aboveground organs (leaves, fruit, flowers, buds, and stem segments of shoots) are considered as individual organs. Their position within the tree has been programmed to resemble realistic tree depictions in the computer screen. L-PEACH-d also simulates interactions between fruit set and natural fruit abscission (Lopez et al., 2008b). The root system is treated collectively as a single module. Organ functionality of each organ is fully described in Lopez et al. (2008a).
2) Architectural model. The architectural model was implemented using L-system (Prusinkiewicz and Lindenmayer, 1990) and Markovian model concepts (Guédon et al., 2001). L-systems integrate all the organs of the tree, and the Markovian models define branching and flowering patterns as described in Lopez et al. (2008a). This approach produces realistic tree architecture simulations (Fig. 3).
3) Carbohydrate movement within the tree. L-PEACH-d includes an algorithm that simulates carbohydrate interactions between organs and its transport within the tree. An analogy between the flow of resources in a plant and the flow of current in an electric circuit was used to model carbohydrate transport within the tree (Prusinkiewicz et al., 2007a). Details of the implementation of this algorithm in L-PEACH-d have been described in Allen et al. (2005).
4) Commercial practices sub-models. Fruit thinning and pruning responses have been incorporated into the model to simulate the effect of these practices on tree growth and development. Details of fruit thinning and pruning implementation are given in Lopez et al. (2008b) and Smith et al. (2008).
Rules governing these four components of the model collectively determine growth and development of the organs that make up the simulated tree. In each daily step, 3D depictions of the simulated tree can be defined graphically using the L-studio (4.0) software (Fig. 1). At the same time, text files with quantitative data for each organ are generated. For example, in the case of the leaves it is possible to analyze the patterns of intercepted light, net photosynthesis, carbohydrate assimilation, and the amount of carbohydrates used for respiration. Moreover, quantitative outputs for the whole-tree are also generated. These may include total tree photosynthesis, carbohydrate assimilation, weight accumulation in each organ type, and the total amount of carbohydrates accumulated in storage organs. Some of these outputs have been previously presented in Allen et al. (2007) and Lopez et al. (2008a). 2ff7e9595c
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